When the automotive industry was in its infancy, it used electricity only to ignite the fuel inside the engine. By the late 1920's, the electric starter replaced the hand crank, electric headlights made acetylene lamps obsolete and the braying of the electric horn drowned out the squeak of the hand-squeezed air horn. Today, an automobile requires an elaborate electrical system of circuits just to produce, store, and distribute all the electricity it requires simply for everyday operation.
The first major component in the electrical system is the battery. The battery is used to store power for starting, and for running auxiliary devices (eg. clocks, radios, alarms) when the engine is off. The next major component is the starter motor, which is used to start the engine. The third component is a charging device powered by the engine, known as the alternator. It powers the electrical system when the car is running, and restores the charge within the battery. With these basic components, the car maintains its supply of electricity. A device called the voltage regulator keeps the power level stabilized, and the fuse box keeps minor problems from becoming major ones.
Many different auxiliary electrical devices are used in modern cars, such as: radios, cellular phones, rear window defrosters and electric door locks, as well as a vast array of motors powering everything from the sunroof down.
Alternator or Generator
The alternating-current generator, or alternator, is the electrical system's chief source of power while the engine is running. Its shaft is driven by the same belt that spins the fan. It converts mechanical energy into alternating-current electricity, which is then channeled through diodes that alter it to direct current for the electrical system and for recharging the battery.
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Battery
The car's initial source of electricity is a battery, whose most important function is to start the engine. Once the engine is running, an alternator takes over to supply the car's electrical needs and to restore energy to the battery.
A 12-volt storage battery consists of layers of positively and negatively charged lead plates that, together with their insulated separators, make up each of six two-volt cells. The cells are filled with an electricity-conducting liquid (electrolyte) that is usually two-thirds distilled water and one-third sulfuric acid. Spaces between the immersed plates provide the most exposure to the electrolyte. The interaction of the plates and the electrolyte produces chemical energy that becomes electricity when a circuit is formed between the negative and positive battery terminals.
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Coil
The coil is a compact, electrical transformer that boosts the battery's 12 volts to as high as 20,000 volts. The incoming 12 volts of electricity pass through a primary winding of about 200 turns of copper wire that raises the power to about 250 volts. Inside the distributor, this low-voltage circuit is continuously broken by the opening and closing of the points, each interruption causing a breakdown in the coil's electromagnetic field. Each time the field collapses, a surge of electricity passes to a secondary winding made up of more than a mile of hair-like wire twisted into 25,000 turns. At this point, the current is boosted to the high voltage needed for ignition and is then relayed to the rotor.
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Distrbutor
Distributor Cap
As the rotor rotates inside the cap, it receives the high voltage from the ignition coil, then passes it to the nearest connection, which is a metal projection in the cap, which is connected to a spark plug.
The distributor cap should be checked to see that the sparks have not been arcing from point to point within the cap. The inside of the cap must be clean. The firing points should not be eroded, and the inside of the towers must be clean and free from corrosion.
Distributor Rotor
A distributor rotor is designed to rotate and distribute the high tension current to the towers of the distributor cap. The firing end of the rotor, from which the high tension spark jumps to each of the cap terminals, should not be worn. Any wear will result in resistance to the high tension spark. The rotor with a worn firing end will have to be replaced.
Rotors are mounted on the upper end of the distributor shaft. In this connection, the rotor must have a snug fit on the end of the shaft. On another design, two screws are used to attach the rotor to a plate on the top of the distributor shaft. Built-in locators on the rotor, and holes in the plate, insure correct reassembly. One locator is round; the other is square.
The rotor is driven directly by the camshaft, but is "advanced" (turned) by the centrifugal advance mechanism. Advancing the spark timing allows the engine to run efficiently. A vacuum advance is also fitted on some cars for the same reason.
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Horn
The car horn on passenger cars provides the driver with a means of sounding an audible warning signal. The horn electrical circuit generally includes: battery, fuse or fusible link, horn relay, horn(s), steering column wiring harness, horn switch, and body sheet metal. Often, a cadmium plated screw is used to ground the horn to the body of the vehicle. Horns usually are located in the forward part of the engine compartment or in the front fender well. The horn switch is built into the steering wheel or incorporated into the multi-functional switch lever, which includes turn signal and dimmer switch.
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Ignition Circuit
The distributor is separated into three sections: the upper, middle, and lower. In the middle section, the corners of the spinning breaker cam strike the breaker arm and separate the points some 160 miles an hour. (standard ignition) High-voltage surges generated by the action of the coil travel to the rotor that whirls inside a circle of high-tension terminals in the distributor cap. At each terminal, current is transferred to wires that lead to the spark plugs. Two other devices - the vacuum advance and the centrifugal advance - precisely coordinate the functions of the points and the rotor assembly as the requirements of the engine vary.
An ignition circuit consists of two sub-circuits: the primary, which carries low voltage; and the secondary, which carries high voltage. The primary circuit, controlled by the ignition key, releases 12 volts of electricity from the battery or alternator through the coil to a set of breaker points in the lower part of the distributor, or to the relay in electronic ignition applications. When the points or relay are closed, current flows through the chassis back to the battery, completing the circuit. When the points or relay are open, the flow stops, causing a high-voltage surge to pass from the coil through a rotor in the top of the distributor to the spark plugs. Once the car has started, the voltage regulator protects the battery from being overcharged by the alternator. The condenser absorbs part of the low-voltage current when the points are open.
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Ignition (Computerised & Electronic)
In an electronic ignition, a rotating reluctor and magnetic-pickup coil replace the traditional cam, breaker points and condenser in the distributors of cars equipped for electronic ignition. This system reduces the time between tune-ups. The high spots of the reluctor interrupt the magnetic field of the pickup coil and the permanent magnet. These interruptions, or pulses, are transmitted from the pickup to a nearby electronic control unit. There, the pulses signal a transistor to break the low-voltage sub-circuit and release high voltage from the coil to the spark plugs.
The short-lived electronic ignition system was a transition from the points and condenser system to the computerized ignition system. It came into widespread use in the mid-1970s, but there are still a few engines that use electronic ignition.
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Lights
The automobile lighting circuit includes the wiring harness, all the lights, and the various switches that control their use. The complete circuit of the modern passenger car can be broken down into individual circuits, each having one or more lights and switches. In each separate circuit, the lights are connected in parallel, and the controlling switch is in series between the group of lights and the fuse box. The parking lights, are connected in parallel and controlled by a single switch. In some installations, one switch controls the connection to the fuse box, while a selector switch determines which of two circuits is energized. The headlights, with their upper and lower beams, are an example of this type of switch. Again, in some cases, such as the courtesy lights, several switches may be connected in parallel so that any switch may be used to turn on the lights.
Main Lighting Switch
The main lighting switch (sometimes called the headlight switch) is the heart of the lighting system. It controls the headlights, parking lights, side marker lights, taillights, license plate light, instrument panel lights, and interior lights. Individual switches are provided for special purpose lights such as directional signals, hazard warning flashers, back up lights, and courtesy lights. The main lighting switch may be of either the "push-pull" or "push-pull with rotary contact" types. A typical switch will have three positions: off, parking, and headlamps. Some switches also contain a rheostat to control the brightness of the instrument panel lights. The rheostat is operated by rotating the control knob, separating it from the push-pull action of the main lighting switch.
When the main lighting switch completes the circuit to the headlamps, the low beam lights the way for city driving and for use when meeting oncoming traffic on the highway. When the dimmer switch is actuated, the single filament headlamps go "on," along with the high beam of the two filament headlamps. The next actuation of the dimmer switch returns the headlighting system to low beams only on the two filament lamps. Some cars are equipped with an electronic headlight dimming device, which automatically switches the headlights from high beam to low in response to light from an approaching vehicle or light from the taillight of a vehicle being overtaken. The dimmer switch in the automatic headlamp dimming system is a special override type. It is located in the steering column as part of a combination dimmer, horn, and turn signal switch. The override action occurs when a slight pull toward the driver on the switch lever provides high beam headlights regardless of the amount of light on the sensor-amplifier.
For some years there has been discussion about the advantages of a polarized headlight system. Such a system comprises headlights which produce polarized light in a particular plane. The windscreens of all cars would be fitted with polarizing glass, which would be oriented so that glare from an approaching vehicle would be essentially eliminated, while the forward vision would still be kept at the present levels. The advantages the system appear attractive, but the practical problems of making the transition are very great, since it would not be practical to convert all existing vehicles to this type of lighting. Also, any benefits would only be marginal because glare itself is not a frequent cause of accidents. However, many cars now have refracting or colored glass to cut down on glare.
Due to recent legislation, newer cars in Texas with the dimmer switch mounted on the steering column will have to be refurbished with standard floor-mounted dimmers. Too many Aggies are being found in the ditch with their legs caught in the steering wheel.
Directional Signal Switch
The directional signal switch is installed just below the hub of the steering wheel. A manually controlled lever projecting from the switch permits the driver to signal the direction in which he wants to turn. Moving the switch handle down will light the "turn signal" lamps on the left front and left rear of the car, signaling a left turn. Moving the switch upward will light the turn signal lamps on the right (front and rear), signaling a right turn. With the switch in a position to signal a turn, lights are alternately turned "on" and "off" by a turn signal flasher. Incorporated in the directional signal switch is a "lane change switch mechanism." This feature provides the driver the opportunity to signal a lane change by holding the turn lever against a detent, then releasing it to cancel the signal immediately after the maneuver is completed.
Stoplight Switch
In order to signal a stop, a brake pedal operated "stoplight switch" is provided to operate the vehicle's stop lamps. In addition to lighting the conventional rear lights, the switch also operates the center high-mounted stop lamp, that became mandatory on later models. Cruise control equipped vehicles may also utilize a vacuum release valve. In this case, both the vacuum release valve and the stoplight switch are actuated by movement of the brake pedal.
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Spark Plugs
A spark plug is a device, inserted into the combustion chamber of an engine, containing a side electrode and insulated center electrode spaced to provide a gap for firing an electrical spark to ignite air-fuel mixtures.
The high-voltage burst from the coil via the distributor is received at the spark plug's terminal and conducted down a center electrode protected by a porcelain insulator. At the bottom of the plug, which projects into the cylinder, the voltage must be powerful enough to jump a gap between the center and side electrodes through a thick atmosphere of fuel mixture. When the spark bridges the gap, it ignites the fuel in the cylinder.
Spark Plug Wear
The spark plugs ignite the fuel mixture in the cylinders by means of a burst of high-voltage electricity carried from the distributor. The ability of the spark to ignite the fuel is badly affected if the plugs are damaged or the spark gaps are abnormal. It is therefore important to examine used spark plugs closely and to clean them periodically. The gaps of old and new plugs should also be checked before installing them. There are three basic types of spark plug fouling: "carbon" fouling, "high speed" or "lead" fouling, and "oil/carbon" fouling.
Carbon fouling is caused from low-speed operation or a fuel mixture that is too rich. It causes missing or roughness and creates soft black soot that is easily removed. Lead fouling is caused by tetraethyl lead used in some fuels and by extended high speed operation. Lead compounds which are added to the gasoline have a bad effect on some spark plug insulators. At high temperatures, it is a good conductor and may give good results under light loads, but often fails under full loads and high combustion temperatures. In some cases, it is possible to run the engine at a speed just below the point where missing will occur; then, increase the speed (always keeping below the missing speed) to burn off the lead fouling. Lead fouling appears as a heavy, crusty formation, or as tiny globules.
The third type of fouling is found on engines that are so badly worn that excess oil reaches the combustion chamber past the piston ring, or the valve guides.
In all cases of fouling or wear, it is best to replace the plugs. To avoid having to replace plugs one at a time as they wear out, always replace the entire set, even though only one plug may be bad. Plugs should normally be replaced about every 12,000 miles.
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Starter Motor
The starter converts electricity to mechanical energy in two stages. Turning on the ignition switch releases a small amount of power from the battery to the solenoid above the starter. This creates a magnetic field that pulls the solenoid plunger forward, forcing the attached shift yoke to move the starter drive so that its pinion gear meshes with the engine's crankshaft flywheel. When the plunger completes its travels, it strikes a contact that permits a greater amount of current to flow from the battery to the starter motor. The motor then spins the drive and turns the meshed gears to provide power to the crankshaft, which prepares each cylinder for ignition. After the engine starts, the ignition key is released to break the starting circuit. The solenoid's magnetic field collapses and the return spring pulls the plunger back, automatically shutting off the starter motor and disengaging the starter drive.
When the starter is not in use, the drive unit is retracted so that its pinion is disengaged from the flywheel. As soon as the starter is activated, the forward movement of the solenoid plunger causes the shift yoke to move the drive in the opposite direction and engage the pinion and flywheel. The pinion is locked to its shaft by a clutch that unlocks if the engine starts up and the flywheel begins turning the pinion faster than its normal speed. By allowing the pinion to spin freely for a moment, the clutch protects the motor from damage until the drive is retracted.
